References: What is Artificial Intelligence?

References - What Is Artificial Intelligence?

Sources were checked on 27 and 28 September 2026. EU regulatory dates are stated as of September 2026 and should be rechecked before relying on them. Primary sources come first in each group.

Definitions, law and standards

• European Union, Regulation (EU) 2024/1689 (Artificial Intelligence Act), Official Journal L, 12 July 2024: Article 3(1) (definition of an AI system), Recital 12 (the capability to infer; exclusion of rules defined solely by natural persons), Article 113 (application dates: in force 1 August 2024; prohibitions from 2 February 2025; obligations for general-purpose AI models from 2 August 2025; general application, including the Article 50 transparency duties, from 2 August 2026). https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2024/1689/oj/eng
• European Union, Regulation (EU) 2026/1744 of 8 July 2026 (Digital Omnibus on AI), published 24 July 2026, in force 27 July 2026: Annex III high-risk obligations from 2 December 2027 and Annex I from 2 August 2028. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2026/1744/oj/eng
• European Commission, Guidelines on the definition of an artificial intelligence system established by Regulation (EU) 2024/1689, published 6 February 2025 (systems that may fall outside the definition: basic data processing, mathematical optimisation, classical heuristics such as minimax chess programs, simple prediction). https://ai-act-service-desk.ec.europa.eu/sites/default/files/2025-08/commission_guidelines_on_the_definition_of_an_artificial_intelligence_system_established_by_regulation_eu_20241689_ai_actenglish_nf2skcqfrtjdfggjavcodopcwz4_112455.PDF
• OECD, Explanatory Memorandum on the Updated OECD Definition of an AI System, OECD Artificial Intelligence Papers No. 8, March 2024 (the definition revised in November 2023). https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/explanatory-memorandum-on-the-updated-oecd-definition-of-an-ai-system_623da898-en.html
• ISO/IEC 22989:2022, Information technology — Artificial intelligence — Artificial intelligence concepts and terminology, 2022 (the international terminology standard). https://www.iso.org/standard/74296.html
• US Securities and Exchange Commission, press release 2024-36, "SEC Charges Two Investment Advisers with Making False and Misleading Statements About Their Use of Artificial Intelligence", 18 March 2024 (Delphia $225,000; Global Predictions $175,000). https://www.sec.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2024-36

The Air Canada case

• Civil Resolution Tribunal of British Columbia, Moffatt v. Air Canada, 2024 BCCRT 149, decided 14 February 2024 (the November 2022 chatbot exchange after a death in the family; the chatbot's 90-day statement and the bereavement policy page its answer linked to; the separate-legal-entity argument rejected; C$650.88 damages, C$36.14 interest and C$125 tribunal fees, C$812.02 in total). https://www.canlii.org/en/bc/bccrt/doc/2024/2024bccrt149/2024bccrt149.html

Authority and levels of automation

• Parasuraman, R., Sheridan, T. B., and Wickens, C. D., "A Model for Types and Levels of Human Interaction with Automation", IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Part A 30(3), 286–297, May 2000 (the ten levels, adapted from Sheridan and Verplank's 1978 report on undersea teleoperators). https://doi.org/10.1109/3468.844354
• SAE International, J3016_202104, Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to Driving Automation Systems for On-Road Motor Vehicles, April 2021 (Levels 0 to 5). https://www.sae.org/standards/content/j3016_202104/

The four systems

• Google, RETVec (Resilient and Efficient Text Vectorizer) repository, google-research, 2023. https://github.com/google-research/retvec
• Google's November 2023 announcement of RETVec in Gmail (spam detection rate up 38% over the baseline, false positives down 19.4%, TPU usage down 83%), as reported by The Hacker News, November 2023; the figures were confirmed in several independent reports of the announcement. https://thehackernews.com/2023/11/google-unveils-retvec-gmails-new.html
• GitHub Docs, "GitHub Copilot code suggestions in your IDE" (ghost-text suggestions accepted with Tab). https://docs.github.com/en/copilot/concepts/completions/code-suggestions
• Waymo, "Fleet response: Lending a helpful hand to Waymo's autonomously driven vehicles", May 2024 (remote agents provide information on request; the Waymo Driver stays in control). https://waymo.com/blog/2024/05/fleet-response/
• Webb, N., Smith, D., Ludwick, C., et al., "Waymo's Safety Methodologies and Safety Readiness Determinations", Waymo LLC, arXiv:2011.00054, 30 October 2020 (the Waymo Driver as an SAE Level 4 automated driving system). https://arxiv.org/abs/2011.00054

Foundation models and the research field

• Bommasani, R., et al., On the Opportunities and Risks of Foundation Models, Stanford Center for Research on Foundation Models, August 2021 (the definition quoted in the chapter). https://arxiv.org/abs/2108.07258
• McCarthy, J., Minsky, M. L., Rochester, N., and Shannon, C. E., A Proposal for the Dartmouth Summer Research Project on Artificial Intelligence, 31 August 1955. https://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/history/dartmouth/dartmouth.html
• Russell, S. J., and Norvig, P., Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach, 4th edition, Pearson, 2021. https://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/

Pricing human review

• Klarna, "Klarna AI assistant handles two-thirds of customer service chats in its first month", press release, 27 February 2024 (2.3 million conversations; work of 700 full-time agents; under 2 minutes versus 11; US$40 million estimated profit improvement in 2024). https://www.klarna.com/international/press/klarna-ai-assistant-handles-two-thirds-of-customer-service-chats-in-its-first-month/
• Bloomberg, "Klarna Turns From AI to Real Person Customer Service", 8 May 2025 (Sebastian Siemiatkowski: "As cost unfortunately seems to have been a too predominant evaluation factor when organizing this, what you end up having is lower quality."). https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2025-05-08/klarna-turns-from-ai-to-real-person-customer-service
• Hanley, J. A., and Lippman-Hand, A., "If Nothing Goes Wrong, Is Everything All Right? Interpreting Zero Numerators", JAMA 249(13), 1743–1745, 1983 (the zero-failure bound used for the 1,750-answer figure). https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1983.03330370053031